Communications in Humanities Research
- The Open Access Proceedings Series for Conferences
Communications in Humanities Research
Vol. 29, 19 April 2024
Open
Access | Article
Gender Stereotypes and Discrimination in Sports and Esports Industry: A Systemic Review of Causes and Statistics
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
There are many inequalities existing in our world, including gender inequality and race inequality. These inequalities are caused by discrimination and stereotypes. In sports industry, the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes is common. Female athletes and women who want to work in sport industry are confronting the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes. In addition, a rising industry, esports industry, has the same problem. The aim of this study was to review the current state of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry and causes of it. This paper reviews relevant references to give a holistic review of the current state of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry, including statistics and background information, and this paper reviews the causes of this problem from macro-level, meso-level, and micro-level. The findings of this paper indicated that although sports organizations gave policies that seem to solve the problem, gender discrimination and stereotypes still exist in both sports and esports industry. Therefore, by examining the causes of the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry, future study can be more targeted while they are investigating the way to solve the problem.
Keywords
Sports, Esports, Gender Discrimination, Gender Stereotypes
References
1. Dabla-Norris, E., Kochhar, K., Ricka, F., & Tsounta, E. (n.d.). Causes and Consequences of Income Inequality: A Global Perspective.
2. Oskamp, S. (Ed.). (2013). Gender and Race Discrimination: The Interactive Nature of Disadvantage. In Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination (0 ed., pp. 57–80). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410605634-8
3. Altonji, J. G., & Blank, R. M. (1999). Chapter 48 Race and gender in the labor market. In Handbook of Labor Economics (Vol. 3, pp. 3143–3259). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4463(99)30039-0
4. Ellemers, N. (2017). Gender Stereotypes.
5. Messner, M. (2011). Gender ideologies, youth sports, and the production of soft essentialism. Sociology of Sport Journal, 28,151–170.
6. Plaza, M., Boiché, J., Brunel, L., & Ruchaud, F. (2017). Sport = Male… But Not All Sports: Investigating the Gender Stereotypes of Sport Activities at the Explicit and Implicit Levels. Sex Roles, 76(3–4), 202–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0650-x
7. Arribas, C. (2017) Why female athletes in Spain are banned from getting pregnant. El Pais, 27 March. Available at: http://elpais.com/elpais/2017/03/27/inenglish/1490613973_221448.html (Accessed 21 August 2023).
8. Smith, M., & Wrynn, A. (2013). Women in the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic games: An analysis of participation and leadership opportunities. Ann Arbor, MI: SHARP Center for Women and Girls. Retrieved from http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/en/home/research/sharp-center.
9. Burton, L. J. (2015). Underrepresentation of women in sport leadership: A review of research. Sport Management Review, 18(2), 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.02.004
10. Rogstad, E. T. (2022). Gender in eSports research: A literature review. European Journal for Sport and Society, 19(3), 195–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/16138171.2021.1930941
11. Shen, C., Ratan, R., Cai, Y. D., & Leavitt, A. (2016). Do men advance faster than women? Debunking the gender performance gap in two massively multiplayer online games. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 21(4), 312–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12159
12. Paaßen, B., Morgenroth, T., & Stratemeyer, M. (2017). What is a true gamer? The male gamer stereotype and the marginalization of women in video game culture. Sex Roles, 76(7–8), 421–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0678-y
13. Entertainment Software Association (ESA) (2018). 2018 essential facts about the computer and video game industry. Retrieved from: https://www.theesa.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/ESA_
14. Moawad, J. (n.d.). Gender Inequality in Sports.
15. Thompson, A and Lewis, A. (2014) Men get more prize money than women in 30% of sports. BBC Sport, 28 October. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/29744400 (Accessed 26 August 2023).
16. Travers, A. (2008) The Sport Nexus and Gender Injustice. Studies in Social Justice, 2 (1), 79–101.
17. Berri, D. (2015) Basketball’s gender wage gap is even worse than you think. Vice Sports, 12 August. Available at: https://sports.vice.com/en_us/article/basketballs-gender-wage-gap-is-even-worse-thanyou-think (Accessed 26 August 2023).
18. Wigmore, T. (2016) Sport’s gender pay gap: why are women still paid less than men? New Statesmen, 5 August. Available at: http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/sport/2016/08/sport-sgender-pay-gap-why- are-women-still-paid-less-men (Accessed 26 April 2023).
19. Collins, T. (2013) Sport in capitalist society: A short history. London: Routledge.
20. Ross, S. R., & Shinew, K. J. (2008). Perspectives of women college athletes on sport and gender. Gender Roles, 58,40–57. doi:10.1007 /s11199-007-9275-4.
21. McKinney, L. (2017). The 7 Most WTF Scandals In eSports History. (Online), April 10, 2017. Available at: Cracked. http://www.cracked.com/blog/the-unbelievably-dark-sidecompetitive-gaming/ (Accessed 26 August 2023).
22. Acosta, R. V., & Carpenter, L. J. (2012). Women in intercollegiate sport. A longitudinal, national study, thirty five update 1977–2012. Retrieved from http:// www.acostacarpenter.org/.
23. International Working Group on Women and Sport. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.sydneyscoreboard.com/.
24. Lapchick, R. (2012). The racial and gender report card. Retrieved from http://www.tidesport.org/racialgenderreportcard.html.
25. Martin, P. Y. (2003). Said and done versus saying and doing gendering practices, practicing gender at work. Gender & Society, 17(3), 342–366.
26. Shaw, S., & Hoeber, L. (2003). “A Strong Man Is Direct and a Direct Woman Is a Bitch”: Gendered Discourses and Their Influence on Employment Roles in Sport Organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 17(4), 347-375. Retrieved Aug 26, 2023, from https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.17.4.347
27. Norman, L. (2010). Feeling Second Best: Elite Women Coaches’ Experiences. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27(1), 89-104. Retrieved Aug 26, 2023, from https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.27.1.89
28. Allport, G. W., Clark, K., & Pettigrew, T. (1954). The nature of prejudice.
29. Claringbould, I., & Knoppers, A. (2008). Doing and undoing gender in sport governance. Sex Roles, 58, 81–92.
30. Whisenant, W. A. (2008). Sustaining male dominance in interscholastic athletics: A case of homologous reproduction... or not? Sex Roles, 58(11-12), 768–775.
31. Yiamouyiannis, A., & Osborne, B. (2012). Addressing gender inequities in collegiate sport examining female leadership representation within NCAA sport governance. SAGE Open, 2(2), 1–13.
32. Ely, R., & Padavic, I. (2007). A feminist analysis of organizational research on sex differences. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1121–1143.
33. Claringbould, I., & Knoppers, A. (2007). Finding a ‘normal’ woman: Selection processes for board membership. Sex Roles, 56, 495–507.
34. Shaw, S., & Penney, D. (2003). Gender equity policies in National Governing Bodies: An oxymoron or a vehicle for change? European Sport Management Quarterly, 3, 78–102.
35. Schein, E. H. (1996). Culture: The missing concept in organization studies. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 229–240.
36. Anderson, E. D. (2009). The maintenance of masculinity among the stakeholders of sport. Sport Management Review, 12(1), 3–14.
37. Spoor, J. R., & Hoye, R. (2013). Perceived support and women’s intentions to stay at a sport organization. British Journal of Management http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ 1467-8551.12018
38. Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037// 0033-295X.109.3.573
39. Burton, L. J., Grappendorf, H., & Henderson, A. (2011). Perceptions of gender in athletic administration: Utilizing role congruity to examine (potential) prejudice against women. Journal of Sport Management, 25, 36–45.
40. Aicher, T. J., & Sagas, M. (2010). Are head coaches in intercollegiate athletics perceived as masculine? An evaluation of gender stereotypes and the effect of sexism on intercollegiate coaches. Gender Issues, 27(3-4), 165–174.
41. Cunningham, G. B., & Sagas, M. (2007). Examining potential differences between men and women in the impact of treatment discrimination. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(12), 3010–3024.
42. Cunningham, G. B., & Sagas, M. (2002). The differential effects of human capital for male and female division I basketball coaches. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73(4), 489–495.
43. Walker, N. A., & Bopp, T. (2010). The underrepresentation of women in the male-dominated sport workplace: Perspectives of female coaches. Journal of Workplace Rights, 15(1), 47–64.
44. Sartore, M. L., & Cunningham, G. B. (2007). Explaining the under-representation of women in leadership positions of sport organizations: A symbolic interactionist perspective. Quest, 59(2), 244–265.
45. Interpret. (2019, 2 March). Female esports watchers gain 6% in gender viewership share in last two years. https://interpret.la/female-esports-watchers-gain-6-in-gender-viewership-share-inlast-two-years/
46. Hilbert, J. (2019, 9 April). Gaming & gender: how inclusive are eSports? The Sports Integrity Initiative. https://www.sportsintegrityinitiative.com/gaming-gender-how-inclusive-are-esports/
47. Darvin, L., Vooris, R., Mahoney, T. (2020). The playing experiences of esport participants: An analysis of treatment discrimination and hostility in esport environments. Journal of Athlete Development and Experience, 2(1), 36-50.
48. Jenson, J. & de Castell, S. (2013). Tipping Points: Marginality, Misogyny and Videogames. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 29(2), 27-85.
49. Ruvalcaba, O., Shulze, J., Kim, A., Berzenski, S. R., & Otten, M. P. (2018). Women’s Experiences in eSports: Gendered Differences in Peer and Spectator Feedback During Competitive Video Game Play. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 42(4), 295-311.
50. Ratan, R. A., Taylor, N., Hogan, J., Kennedy, T., & Williams, D. (2015). Stand byYour Man: An Examination of Gender Disparity in League of Legends. Games and Culture, 10(5), 438-462.
51. Siutila, M. & Havaste, E. (2019). A pure meritocracy blind to identity: Exploring the Online Responses to All-Female Esports Teams in Reddit. Transactions of the Digital Games Research Association, 4(3), 43-74.
52. Kim, S. J. (2017). Gender Inequality in eSports Participation: Examining League of Legends. Master Thesis: University of Texas at Austin.
53. Downs, E., & Smith, S. L. (2010). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 62(11-12), 721–733.
54. Lin, W. byBrittney. (2023). Diversity in gaming: An analysis of video game characters. DiamondLobby. https://diamondlobby.com/geeky-stuff/diversity-in-gaming/
55. Bègue, L., Sarda, E., Gentile, D. A., Bry, C., & Roché, S. (2017). Video games exposure and sexism in a representative sample of adolescents. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 466.
56. Gitnux, A. (2023). The most surprising gender inequality in sports statistics and Trends in 2023 • gitnux. GITNUX. https://blog.gitnux.com/gender-inequality-in-sports-statistics/
57. Goal Five. (2022). Sexism in sports: Statistics might surprise you. Goal Five. https://goalfive.com/blogs/news/sexism-in-sport-statistics
Data Availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Authors who publish this series agree to the following terms:
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the series right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this series.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the series's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this series.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See Open Access Instruction).
- Volume Title
- Proceedings of the International Conference on Global Politics and Socio-Humanities
- ISBN (Print)
- 978-1-83558-365-4
- ISBN (Online)
- 978-1-83558-366-1
- Published Date
- 19 April 2024
- Series
- Communications in Humanities Research
- ISSN (Print)
- 2753-7064
- ISSN (Online)
- 2753-7072
- DOI
- 10.54254/2753-7064/29/20230624
- Copyright
- 19 April 2024
- Open Access
- This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited